| dc.description.abstract | Top-down, bottom-up, and incremental approaches are usually applied to the implementation of policies (DarlingHammond, 2000). Top-down strategies refer to a more linear, unitary and rational process where decisions are from the top, sometimes made by those at the head of institutions, while the bottom-up approach is relatively communicative and emanates from those who are the likely recipients of the policies or decisions, and are often those closest to the implementation process and have the greatest bearing to the outcomes of policies or programs (Darling-Hammond, 1990; Haddad & Demsky, 1995). Even though these approaches have been solely applied to the policy process, they can also explain implementation mechanisms within education programs that have expansive in nature and seeks to influence policy outcomes in a particular educational skill area—learning outcomes. | |
